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Amino Acids and Proteins for the Athlete: The Anabolic Edge, Second Edition by Dr. Mauro G. Di PasqualeProtein, and the amino acids of which it is composed, is an important part of athletes’ diets, and the subject of a great deal of discussion and controversy. Amino Acids and Protein for the Athlete-The Anabolic Edge is the first single volume devoted to this important topic. In addition to basic information about protein and amino acids, this very timely book describes the anabolic effects of high-protein diets, the values of different food proteins, the differences among various protein foods, the advantages of specific proteins, processes to maximize the value of protein, and the biological and pharmacological effects of certain amino acids.A world-caliber athlete for two decades, Dr. Di Pasquale has won the World Championship and dozens of national and international competitions, including the World Games, Pan American Games, North American Championships, and Canadian Championships, all in the game of powerlifting. Written by this recognized expert on sports nutrition, the book will appeal to both sports professionals who need to maximize strength and endurance and weekend warriors who want to understand the science behind the role of amino acids and protein in athletic performance.ContentsPreface to the Second Edition…………………………………………………………………………………………….xvPreface to the First Edition …………………………………………………………………………………………….. xviiAuthor ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………xixPart IThe TheoryChapter 1       Proteins and Amino Acids………………………………………………………………………………..3Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….3Amino Acids ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..4Peptide Linkage …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………4Free Amino Acid Pool………………………………………………………………………………………………………..5Protein Synthesis………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..6   Regulation of Protein Synthesis………………………………………………………………………………………..7   Factors Affecting Protein Synthesis and Catabolism …………………………………………………………..9   Cellular Hydration and Protein Synthesis…………………………………………………………………………11   Cellular Hydration and Amino Acids………………………………………………………………………………12   Nutrients and Protein Synthesis………………………………………………………………………………………13Protein Catabolism……………………………………………………………………………………………………………14Adaptive Response to Exercise ………………………………………………………………………………………….15Exercise-Induced Amino Acid Flux ……………………………………………………………………………………17References ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….17Chapter 2       Exercise and Protein metabolism …………………………………………………………………….23Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..23Effects of Exercise on Protein Synthesis and Degradation …………………………………………………….24Effects of Protein and Amino Acids on Exercise Performance ………………………………………………24Hormonal Response to Exercise …………………………………………………………………………………………24Hormones ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..26   Growth Hormone ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….27     Growth Hormone and Athletic Performance …………………………………………………………………28     Problems with Exogenous Growth Hormone ………………………………………………………………..30     Effects of Growth Hormone on Body Composition and Athletic Performance …………………30     GH, IGF-1, Insulin, and Amino Acids Synergism …………………………………………………………31     Nutrient and Hormone Delivery to Muscle …………………………………………………………………..32     Growth Hormone and Exercise …………………………………………………………………………………..32     Growth Hormone and Endurance Athletes……………………………………………………………………33     Effects of GH on Core Temperature and Performance …………………………………………………..33     Effects of GH on Intramyocellular Triacylglycerol=Triglyceride Content…………………………33     Regenerative and Cognitive Effects of GH and IGF-1 …………………………………………………..34     Effects of GH on Aging……………………………………………………………………………………………..34     Growth Hormone Synthesis and Secretion……………………………………………………………………34     Myostatin …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………35     GH and Myostatin……………………………………………………………………………………………………..36   Insulin-Like Growth Factor 1 …………………………………………………………………………………………37     GH and IGF-1 Synergism…………………………………………………………………………………………..40     Mechano Growth Factor …………………………………………………………………………………………….42   Insulin………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….43     Insulin’s Controversial Effects on Protein Synthesis and Degradation ……………………………..45     Insulin and Nutrient Delivery ……………………………………………………………………………………..46     Insulin, GH, and IGF-1 Synergism………………………………………………………………………………47   Thyroid Hormones ………………………………………………………………………………………………………..48     Thyroid Hormones and Protein metabolism …………………………………………………………………50     Thyroid Hormone and Other Hormones……………………………………………………………………….51   Testosterone …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………52     Stress and Testosterone Levels ……………………………………………………………………………………53     Exercise and Testosterone Levels………………………………………………………………………………..53   Catabolic Hormones………………………………………………………………………………………………………55     Effect of the Catabolic Hormones on Skeletal Muscle Catabolism ………………………………….55   Catecholamines …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….56     Effects of Catecholamines on Protein metabolism ………………………………………………………..57   Glucagon ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..58     Glucagon and Insulin …………………………………………………………………………………………………59   Cortisol………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..60     Cortisol, Amino Acids, and Other Hormones ……………………………………………………………….61     Testosterone to Cortisol Ratio …………………………………………………………………………………….61     Testosterone to Cortisol Ratio and Exercise………………………………………………………………….62     Effect of Dietary Nutrients on Testosterone and the Testosterone     to Cortisol Ratio………………………………………………………………………………………………………..63Cytokines and Muscle Protein Synthesis……………………………………………………………………………..64Eicosanoids and Muscle Protein Synthesis…………………………………………………………………………..66Hormonal Effects of Amino Acids ……………………………………………………………………………………..69References ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….70Chapter 3       Energy metabolism………………………………………………………………………………………107Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………107Energy Sensing ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………108metabolic Pathways Producing ATP…………………………………………………………………………………108Anaerobic Energy Production…………………………………………………………………………………………..108   Cytoplasmic Anaerobic Substrate-Level Phosphorylation ………………………………………………..108   Anaerobic Mitochondrial Phosphorylation ……………………………………………………………………..109Aerobic Energy Production ……………………………………………………………………………………………..109   TCA Cycle …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………110Role of Protein and Amino Acids in Energy metabolism ……………………………………………………111Fate of Dietary Protein…………………………………………………………………………………………………….112Protein Contribution to Energy metabolism……………………………………………………………………….113Amino Acid Catabolism ………………………………………………………………………………………………….113Oxidation of Amino Acids ………………………………………………………………………………………………113Gluconeogenesis …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….115   Amino Acids and Gluconeogenesis……………………………………………………………………………….116   Hormonal Control of Gluconeogenesis ………………………………………………………………………….117Effects of Amino Acids on Hepatic Glucose metabolism ……………………………………………………118Use of Amino Acids for Energy–Catabolic Effects of Exercise ………………………………………….118   Amino Acid metabolism in Muscle ………………………………………………………………………………119   Pathways of Amino Acid metabolism in Muscle ……………………………………………………………119   Skeletal Muscle Catabolism………………………………………………………………………………………….119   Oxidation of Amino Acids …………………………………………………………………………………………..120Glucogenic and Ketogenic Amino Acids …………………………………………………………………………..122   Glucogenic Amino Acids……………………………………………………………………………………………..123     metabolized to AKG, Pyruvate, Oxaloacetate, Fumarate, or Succinyl-CoA ……………………123   Ketogenic Amino Acids……………………………………………………………………………………………….124     metabolized to Acetyl-CoA or Acetoacetate……………………………………………………………….124Alanine and Glutamine ……………………………………………………………………………………………………124Interorgan Exchange of Amino Acids ……………………………………………………………………………….125Protein metabolism and Ammonia ……………………………………………………………………………………126   metabolism of Ammonia ……………………………………………………………………………………………..126   Urea Formation by the Liver ………………………………………………………………………………………..128   High Levels of Protein Intake and Ammonia………………………………………………………………….129Low-Carbohydrate, High-Protein Diets and Energy metabolism ………………………………………….130   metabolic Advantage of a High-Protein, Low-Carbohydrate Diet …………………………………….130   Dietary Calories from Macronutrients ……………………………………………………………………………130   Low-Carbohydrate Controversy…………………………………………………………………………………….131   Conclusions and Recommendations ………………………………………………………………………………132References ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..133Chapter 4      Dietary Protein and Amino Acids ………………………………………………………………….139Effects of Protein on Dietary Intake and Appetite ………………………………………………………………139Classification of Proteins …………………………………………………………………………………………………139   Simple Proteins …………………………………………………………………………………………………………..139   Conjugated Proteins …………………………………………………………………………………………………….140Functions of Proteins ………………………………………………………………………………………………………141   Growth ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………141   Maintenance ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….141   Regulatory………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….141   Energy ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….142Coagulation and Denaturation ………………………………………………………………………………………….142Protein Digestion, Absorption, and metabolism …………………………………………………………………142Requirement for Dietary Protein–Amino Acid Needs………………………………………………………..144Quality of Proteins ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….144Slow and Fast Dietary Proteins ………………………………………………………………………………………..145Effects of Dietary Protein on Protein metabolism ………………………………………………………………147Protein Quality–Amino Acid Requirements……………………………………………………………………..147Vegetarian Diets……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..149   Types of Vegetarians …………………………………………………………………………………………………..150   Nutritional Quality of Vegetarian Diets………………………………………………………………………….150   Vegetarian Food Guide–Basic Four Food Groups …………………………………………………………151   Supplying Required Nutrients ………………………………………………………………………………………152   Nutritional Considerations of Vegetarians………………………………………………………………………152     Special Nutrient Needs of Vegetarians……………………………………………………………………….152   Vegetarian Athletes……………………………………………………………………………………………………..153   Common Vitamin and Mineral Deficiencies …………………………………………………………………..153   Specific Nutritional Needs of Vegetarians………………………………………………………………………154   Protein ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….154   Ensuring Adequate and High-Quality Protein…………………………………………………………………154   Complementary Proteins………………………………………………………………………………………………154   Nutritional Responses to Combining Two Dietary Proteins ……………………………………………..156   Nutritional Supplements and the Vegetarian Athlete ……………………………………………………….157   Creatine ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..158Food Processing ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..158Measuring Protein Quality……………………………………………………………………………………………….158   Protein Efficiency Ratio……………………………………………………………………………………………….158   Biological Value …………………………………………………………………………………………………………159   Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score ………………………………………………………….160Dietary Protein Requirements…………………………………………………………………………………………..161How Was the RDA Established?………………………………………………………………………………………163Recommended Daily Intakes for Athletes ………………………………………………………………………….164   Historical Overview …………………………………………………………………………………………………….164Effects of Exercise on Dietary Protein Requirements ………………………………………………………….165   Protein (Nitrogen) Balance …………………………………………………………………………………………..168   Effect of Dietary Protein on Protein metabolism…………………………………………………………….170   Amino Acid metabolism ……………………………………………………………………………………………..171   The Dietary Protein Paradox–The Probable Need for Protein and Amino     Acid Supplements Even in Diets High in Dietary Protein…………………………………………….172   Protein Needs in Calorie-Restricted Diets ………………………………………………………………………174References ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..174Chapter 5       Protein Foods versus Protein and Amino Acid Supplements …………………………….185Hydrolysates–Comparison to Whole Protein and Intact Whole-Protein Supplements ……………186Whey Protein Hydrolysates and the Athlete ………………………………………………………………………187BV of Whey Hydrolysates……………………………………………………………………………………………….188Whey Protein and the Immune System ……………………………………………………………………………..188Effects of Whey Protein on Glutathione Levels………………………………………………………………….188Whey and Casein and Antigenicity–Advantages of Hydrolysates……………………………………….189Whey Protein–Conclusions…………………………………………………………………………………………….190Free-Form Amino Acids versus Di- and Tripeptides …………………………………………………………..190Practical Guide to Commercial Amino Acid Preparations……………………………………………………191   Free-Form Amino Acid Mixtures ………………………………………………………………………………….192   Peptide-Bonded Aminos ………………………………………………………………………………………………192Factors Affecting Amino Acid Bioavailability……………………………………………………………………192Role of Amino Acid Supplementation in Muscle Hypertrophy and Strength …………………………193References ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..194Chapter 6       Physiological and Pharmacological Actions of Amino Acids ……………………………197Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………197Central Nervous System Effects of Amino Acids……………………………………………………………….199Effects of Amino Acids on Growth Hormone Release ………………………………………………………..200Hepatoprotectant and Cytoprotective Effects of Amino Acids ……………………………………………..201References ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..201Chapter 7       Essential Amino Acids …………………………………………………………………………………207Use of Essential Amino Acids after Training Increases 24 h Protein Balance………………………..207Branched-Chain Amino Acids: Isoleucine, Leucine, and Valine…………………………………………..208  BCAAs and Muscle Hypertrophy………………………………………………………………………………….212  BCAAs and Hypoxia …………………………………………………………………………………………………..213  Regulation of Muscle Protein Synthesis by Leucine………………………………………………………..213  Leucine and Body Composition ……………………………………………………………………………………214  Branched-Chain Keto Acids …………………………………………………………………………………………215  a-Ketoisocaproic Acid…………………………………………………………………………………………………215  b-Hydroxy-b-Methylbutyrate ……………………………………………………………………………………….216Lysine……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………218  L-Carnitine………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….218     L-Carnitine metabolism…………………………………………………………………………………………….219     L-Carnitine Functions ……………………………………………………………………………………………….220     LCAR Effects on Body Composition and Exercise Performance…………………………………..221     L-Carnitine and Choline ……………………………………………………………………………………………224  Acetyl-L-Carnitine ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….224     Cognitive and Antiaging Effects of ALCAR ………………………………………………………………226Methionine …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….227  S-Adenosyl-L-Methionine …………………………………………………………………………………………….229Creatine …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………229  Creatine Supplementation …………………………………………………………………………………………….230  Creatine Supplementation Combined with Other Ingredients……………………………………………232  Creatine and Caffeine ………………………………………………………………………………………………….232Phenylalanine …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………233Threonine ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………233Tryptophan …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….233References ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..235Chapter 8       Conditionally Essential Amino Acids …………………………………………………………….253L-Arginine   ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..253  L-Arginine     and Nitric Oxide …………………………………………………………………………………………255  L-Arginine and the Athlete……………………………………………………………………………………………256  Thiamin, Arginine, Caffeine, and Citric Acid Combination ……………………………………………..258  Recovery and Athletic Injuries ……………………………………………………………………………………..258  Possible Ergolytic Effects of Nitric Oxide ……………………………………………………………………..258  L-Arginine and Caffeine……………………………………………………………………………………………….258L-Citrulline …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….259  Citrulline Malate …………………………………………………………………………………………………………260L-Cysteine………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………260N-Acetylcysteine …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….261L-Glutamine……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………262  Glutamine metabolism…………………………………………………………………………………………………263  Anabolic and Anticatabolic Effects of Glutamine……………………………………………………………263  Glutamine and Cortisol ………………………………………………………………………………………………..264  Anabolic Effects of Glutamine ……………………………………………………………………………………..266  Glutamine and Athletic Performance……………………………………………………………………………..267  Glutamine and Overtraining …………………………………………………………………………………………269  Oral Glutamine Supplementation…………………………………………………………………………………..270   Glutamine in Supplements……………………………………………………………………………………………271   Summary ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………271   a-Ketoglutarate …………………………………………………………………………………………………………..272Histidine ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..272L-Carnosine ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………273   Buffering Effects of Carnosine ……………………………………………………………………………………..274Tyrosine ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..275Proline and Hydroxyproline……………………………………………………………………………………………..276References ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..277Chapter 9        Nonessential or Dispensable Amino Acids ……………………………………………………..297Alanine ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….297   Glucose­Alanine Cycle………………………………………………………………………………………………..297   Alanine Needs and Exercise …………………………………………………………………………………………300   b-Alanine …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..301Asparagine and Aspartic Acid ………………………………………………………………………………………….302   Malate­Aspartate Shuttle ……………………………………………………………………………………………..304   D-Aspartic Acid …………………………………………………………………………………………………………..305Citrulline ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….305   Citrulline Malate …………………………………………………………………………………………………………306Glutamic Acid………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..306Ornithine ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….306   Ornithine a-Ketoglutarate …………………………………………………………………………………………….307Serine ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………308   Phosphatidylserine ………………………………………………………………………………………………………309Glycine ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….310Taurine ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….311Levodopa (L-Dopa) …………………………………………………………………………………………………………313Analogues and Derivatives of Amino Acids ………………………………………………………………………314Protein and Amino Acids and Muscle Hypertrophy ……………………………………………………………314References ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..315Chapter 10         Summary and Conclusions ………………………………………………………………………….327Part IINaturally AnabolicChapter 11         Artificial Enhancement ……………………………………………………………………………….331Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………331Drugs in Sports ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………331   Nutritional Supplements ………………………………………………………………………………………………331Gene Therapy and Sports ………………………………………………………………………………………………..331The Easy, but Dangerous Way Out …………………………………………………………………………………..333References ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..334Chapter 12         Getting It Together …………………………………………………………………………………….335Hormonal Manipulation…………………………………………………………………………………………………..335Maximizing Lean Body Mass and Athletic Performance without Drugs ……………………………….336Genetics…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………336Usual Suspects–Lifestyle, Training, Diet, and Nutritional Supplements ………………………………337  Performance and Body Composition Enhancement Pipeline…………………………………………….337Factors That Maximize the Pipeline ………………………………………………………………………………….338  Step Number One–Lifestyle ……………………………………………………………………………………….338  Step Number Two–Training without Overtraining ………………………………………………………..338     Recovery Phase–Protein Synthesis after Exercise………………………………………………………340     Hormonal Changes with Exercise ……………………………………………………………………………..340     Maximizing the Anabolic and Minimizing the Catabolic Effects of Exercise………………….342  Step Number Three–Maximizing Diet and Nutrition……………………………………………………..343Weight Loss and Body Composition…………………………………………………………………………………345  Effective Fat Loss ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….346  Phase Shift Diets…………………………………………………………………………………………………………346  Evolution of My Phase Shift Diets………………………………………………………………………………..346  Man’s Survival: The History of Food…………………………………………………………………………….347  Recipe for Disaster………………………………………………………………………………………………………348  Control of Weight and Body Composition …………………………………………………………………….348  Unstructured Phase Shift Diets ……………………………………………………………………………………..350  Structured Phase Shift Diets …………………………………………………………………………………………351  metabolic Diet ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………351  Cultural Carbohydrates ………………………………………………………………………………………………..353  Carbohydrate Dilemma ………………………………………………………………………………………………..353  Higher-Carbohydrate Phase ………………………………………………………………………………………….353  Low-Carbohydrate Phase ……………………………………………………………………………………………..353  Scientific Validation…………………………………………………………………………………………………….354  Glucose metabolism at the Start of the Low-Carbohydrate Phase  of the metabolic Diet …………………………………………………………………………………………………..355Postexercise Carbohydrates are Counterproductive …………………………………………………………….356  Low-Carbohydrate, High-Protein Diets, and Energy metabolism ……………………………………..358  metabolic Advantage of a High-Protein, Low-Carbohydrate Diet …………………………………….358  Dietary Calories from Macronutrients ……………………………………………………………………………358  Low-Carbohydrate Controversy…………………………………………………………………………………….359Step Number Four–Nutritional Supplements…………………………………………………………………….360  Why, When, and How to Take Them and How Much to Take…………………………………………360  Why Use Nutritional Supplements? ………………………………………………………………………………361  Sports Performance ……………………………………………………………………………………………………..362  Cycling of Supplements……………………………………………………………………………………………….362     Stage One: Detraining or Rest Phase………………………………………………………………………….362     Stage Two: Beginning Training Phase ……………………………………………………………………….363     Stage Three: Precompetition and Competition Phase …………………………………………………..363  Current Nutritional Supplement Use ……………………………………………………………………………..363  Benefits of Nutritional Supplements………………………………………………………………………………366  Vitamins and Minerals…………………………………………………………………………………………………366  Antioxidants ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….368  Vitamin C…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..368  Coenzyme Q10 (Ubiquinone-10)…………………………………………………………………………………..369  Zinc …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..369  Magnesium…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………369  Calcium ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..369  Chromium ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….370  Chromium and Conjugated Linoleic Acid (CLA)……………………………………………………………370  Potassium …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..370  Alpha Lipoic Acid ………………………………………………………………………………………………………371  Glucosamine Sulfate ……………………………………………………………………………………………………371  Green Tea Extract ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….372  Hydroxycitrate…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….372  Citrus aurantium…………………………………………………………………………………………………………373  Yohimbe…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….374  Dhea ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….374  Essential Fatty Acids …………………………………………………………………………………………………..375  Omega-3 Fatty Acids …………………………………………………………………………………………………..375  EFAs and Body Composition and Exercise Performance…………………………………………………376  Gamma Linolenic Acid………………………………………………………………………………………………..377  Conjugated Linolenic Acid…………………………………………………………………………………………..377  Glycerol……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..378  Pyruvate …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….378  Caffeine and Ephedrine ……………………………………………………………………………………………….378  Anticortisol Supplements ……………………………………………………………………………………………..379  Amino Acid and Protein Supplementation ……………………………………………………………………..379Timing of Nutrient and Protein Intake in Relation to Exercise …………………………………………….380  Postexercise Carbohydrates May Be Counterproductive ………………………………………………….381References ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..382Chapter 13       Examples of Useful Nutritional Supplement Formulations ……………………………..397Example of a Weight and Fat Loss, and Body Composition Supplement………………………………397  Thiamin, Arginine, Caffeine, and Citric Acid Combination ……………………………………………..397  Yohimbe…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….397  Citrus aurantium…………………………………………………………………………………………………………398  Evodiamine ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..398  Cayenne Pepper ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….399  Green Tea Extract ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….399  Phenylalanine ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..399  Tyrosine …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….399  Tyrosine, Capsaicin, Catechins, Calcium, and Caffeine Combo ……………………………………….399  Conjugated Linoleic Acid …………………………………………………………………………………………….400  Guarana ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..400  Conjugated Linoleic Acid and Guarana Combo ……………………………………………………………..400  Chromium ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….400  Chromium and CLA ……………………………………………………………………………………………………401  Yerba Maté…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………401  Niacin ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..401  Dandelion …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..401  Amino Acids ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………402  Histidine …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….402  Taurine ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………402  Calcium ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..402  Other Ingredients…………………………………………………………………………………………………………403Boosting Endogenous Growth Hormone……………………………………………………………………………403Postexercise Amino Acid Formulation………………………………………………………………………………406Joint Support Formula …………………………………………………………………………………………………….406  Glucosamine Sulfate ……………………………………………………………………………………………………406  Chondroitin Sulfate ……………………………………………………………………………………………………..407  Combined Use of Glucosamine and Chondroitin Sulfate …………………………………………………407  Hyaluronic Acid………………………………………………………………………………………………………….408  Methylsulfonylmethane………………………………………………………………………………………………..408  Alpha Lipoic Acid ………………………………………………………………………………………………………408  Amino Acids ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………409  Antioxidants ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….409  Boswellia serrata Extract……………………………………………………………………………………………..410  Bromelain, Papain, Trypsin, and Rutin ………………………………………………………………………….410  Cayenne Pepper ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….410  Carnosine …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..410  Coenzyme Q10 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………..411  Devil’s Claw Root (Uncaria tomentosa) ………………………………………………………………………..411  Ginger………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..411  Ginkgo biloba …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….411  Green Tea Extract ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….411  Melatonin …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..412  Omega-3 and Omega-6 Oils–GLA, DHA, and EPA ……………………………………………………..412  Pau D’arco………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….412  Rutin and Quercetin …………………………………………………………………………………………………….413  S-Adenosyl-L-Methionine–Increasing Endogenous Production ……………………………………….413  Shark Cartilage……………………………………………………………………………………………………………413  Silicon ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….413  Stinging Nettle Extract…………………………………………………………………………………………………414  Turmeric…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….414  Vitamins and Minerals…………………………………………………………………………………………………414  White Willow Bark……………………………………………………………………………………………………..415  Yucca Leaf Extract ……………………………………………………………………………………………………..415  Other Ingredients…………………………………………………………………………………………………………416Summary ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….416References ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..416Index…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….427